Approach Material

From ZOA Training Wiki

Contents 1 Vectoring 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Issuing Turns 1.2.1 Turn (direction) heading (heading) 1.2.2 Fly heading (heading) 1.2.3 Turn (# of degrees) degrees (direction) 1.2.4 Fly present heading 1.2.5 Depart (FIX) heading (heading) 1.3 Reason for Vectors 1.3.1 No need to say it twice 1.4 Know the Aircraft's Capabilities 1.5 Required Reading 2 Altitudes 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Types of Altitude Changes 2.2.1 Basic Altitude Instructions 2.2.2 Conditional Altitude Instructions 2.2.3 "Pilot's Discretion" Altitude Instructions 2.2.4 Crossing Restrictions 2.2.5 "Descend via" Altitude Instructions 2.2.6 "Anticipated" Altitude Instructions 2.3 No need to say it twice 2.4 Know the Aircraft's Capabilities 2.5 Required Reading 3 Speed Adjustments 3.1 Using Speed for Proper Separation 3.2 Speed Change Rules 3.2.1 Instructing an aircraft to maintain a specific speed 3.2.2 Instructing an aircraft to adjust it's speed by a certain amount 3.2.3 Maintaining speed 3.2.4 More or Less 3.3 Putting it all together 3.4 How do I know the aircraft's current airspeed? 3.5 Aircraft Capabilities 3.6 Required Reading 4 Minimum Vectoring Altitudes 4.1 How to dislpay MVAs on the scope 5 Aircraft Separation 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Responsibilities: IFR/VFR Separation 5.3 Aircraft Classification 5.4 Separation Standards 5.4.1 Lateral Separation 5.4.2 Vertical Separation 5.5 Traffic Advisories 5.6 Safety Alerts 5.7 Visual Separation 5.8 Separation and Visual Approaches 5.9 Wake Turbulence Separation 5.10 Required Reading 6 Pointouts 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Phraseology 6.2.1 Example 1: Standard Pointout 6.2.2 Example 2: Traffic 6.2.3 Example 3: Restriction 6.2.4 Example 4: Your Control 6.2.5 Example 5: Unable 6.2.6 Radar Contact 6.3 Required Reading 7 Instrument Approaches 7.1 Types of Approaches 7.1.1 Precision 7.1.2 Non-Precision 8 PTAC 8.1 What is PTAC? 8.1.1 P - Postion 8.1.2 T - Turn 8.1.3 A - Altitude 8.1.4 C - Clearance 8.2 Putting it all together 8.3 More examples 8.4 A few things to stay away from 9 Visual Approaches 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Criteria for visual approaches 9.3 Separation 9.4 The "vectored" visual approach 9.5 The "chained" visual approach 9.6 Published visual approaches 10 Departures 11 Handoffs 12 VFR Aircraft 12.1 VFR in Class B/C 12.2 Class B/C VFR separation minima 12.3 Class B/C VFR arrivals and transits 12.4 Routing VFR in Class B/C 12.5 VFR from secondary airports 12.6 VFR flight following 12.6.1 Phraseology 12.6.2 Traffic advisories 13 Operations at Uncontrolled Fields 13.1 Introduction 13.2 IFR Departures 13.2.1 Departure Instructions 13.2.2 Hold for Release 13.2.3 Release Times 13.2.4 Clearance Void Times 13.3 IFR Approaches

Vectoring

Introduction

"Cheyenne 104 Tango Papa, Turn left heading 220 vectors VOR Alpha approach"

You have probably heard radar controllers say things like this many times and perhaps you have dreamed of one day being able to send virtual aircraft all over the sky enroute to a safe landing at their destination. If this is you then listen up! This section will cover two important topics:

The first section will cover some of the most commonly used phraseology for radar positions - assigning headings to IFR aircraft. It is essential that you learn this phraseology to perfection and understand how and when each of the variations should be used.

Communication between pilots and ATC is essential to the system. We need to know what they want, and they need to know what we want. The second section will explain how you can always keep the pilots "in the know" - so they are aware WHY you are giving them vectors.

Issuing Turns

For issuing turns you only have 5 choices for IFR aircraft and they are all outlined in the 7110.65 5-6-2 Vectoring Methods.:

• Turn (direction) heading (heading)
• Fly heading (heading)
• Turn (# of degrees) degrees (direction)
• Fly present heading
• Depart (FIX) heading (heading)

Let's look at each of these.

Turn (direction) heading (heading)

"ACA301, Turn left heading 220, vectors ILS 22R approach."

Specifically states the direction of the turn. There is no deviation from this. No "come about". No "give me a left turn", no "turn left, fly heading 360". It is the same every time - so let's make sure we say it the same every time "TURN RIGHT HEADING 220".

Fly heading (heading)

"ACA301, Fly heading 220, vectors to join V108."

Does not specify a direction to turn. Pilots are supposed to turn to that heading using the shortest distance.

Use this phraseology at your discretion. I personally use it when I have an aircraft on a heading +/- 10 degrees and I want to make sure they are on that heading. For example an aircraft on an arrival tracking a course on the charts. I want the aircraft at 330. He looks to be somewhere between 325 and 335 on the heading. By saying "Fly heading 330" I do not have to worry about which direction I ask him to turn. The point of all this - use this carefully - you are always better off to be SPECIFIC in what you need the pilot to do.

Turn (# of degrees) degrees (direction)

"ACA301, Turn 10 degrees left, vectors for spacing."

Pilot has to do the math here. Very useful for spacing an aircraft who is on a departure following another closely. If you give one of them a turn 10-20 degrees to the left right you can increase your separation easily. Also useful when you don't know what their heading is - just a "general idea". We see this one rarely on VATSIM.

Fly present heading

"ACA301, Fly present heading, vectors for the field."

Useful to get a pilot to stop navigating along a published route.

This is often used to take aircraft off a departure for sequencing.

Depart (FIX) heading (heading)

"ACA301, Depart LOZIT heading 110, vectors visual 28R approach."

This one is commonly misunderstood by pilots, and phraseology is butchered by ATC as often.

Don't say "after XXX". It's simply "depart XXX" or even "departing XXX".

This is an important one to stick in your bag, as I often have said - deal with things as early as you can - this is a great way to get a vector you want in the future out of the way, so you don't have to deal with it later on.

Reason for Vectors

"ACA301 Turn left heading 220, vectors ILS 22R approach."

"ACA301, Fly heading 220, vectors to join V108."

"ACA301 turn 10 degrees left, vectors for spacing."

"ACA301, Fly present heading, vectors for the field."

"ACA301, depart LOZIT heading 110, vectors visual 28R approach."

What do these all have in common?

Yes, they all have "ACA301" in them but that is not what I was looking for. For each vector issued, the controller has also issued the reason for the vector. Do not leave your pilots in the dark. Tell them WHY you are vectoring them.

Essentially, when you issue a vector that takes a pilot off of his or her route that they are navigating on (direct VOR, a STAR, a DP, a V/J airway) they are no longer navigating upon that route. So when you take them OFF of their route - you must tell them where they are when you put them back on.

This is why we issue "ACA301 8 miles from MITOE...." - we are telling the pilot where they are, because the assumption is that we have vectored them OFF of their route - and now must confirm for them WHERE they are.

No need to say it twice

You do not have to specify what the vectors are for after you have already told them once.

"ACA301, departing BOLDR fly heading 340, vectors ILS 28R approach."

"ACA301, descend and maintain 5000."

"ACA301, turn left heading 310."

The reason for the vectors was issued the first time. It does not need to be issued again unless the reason for vectors changes.

Know the Aircraft's Capabilities

Take some time to learn the difference between /A, /G, /F, and /E aircraft are. If you take someone off their route - take the equipment on board into consideration when putting them back on it.

For a /F aircraft you could always say:

"ACA301, Turn left heading 050, proceed direct ALTAM and resume the Dumbarton 6."

For a /A aircraft it would be much harder for him to go "direct ALTAM" unless he was established on a radial:

"ACA301, turn left heading 030, join the Woodside 028 radial outbound and resume the Dumbarton departure."

So keep in mind - when you take a guy OFF his route - you have to put him back ON IT. "RESUME OWN NAV" does NOT get you off the hook. PUT THEM ON COURSE!!

Required Reading

The links below explore the area of Vectoring in greater depth.

7110.65 5-6. Vectoring

7110.65 Appendix A. Aircraft Information

7110.65 2-3. Flight Progress Strips In particular see table 2-3-8. Aircraft Equipment Suffixes.

Altitudes

Introduction

"United 213, Cross Big Sur at and maintain Flight Level 240."

You have probably heard controllers say things like this many times, but perhaps you are unsure of exactly how to properly issue altitude instructions.

This section will cover the most commonly used phraseology for radar positions - assigning altitudes, climbs, and descents to IFR aircraft. It is essential that you learn this phraseology to perfection and understand how and when each of the variations should be used. And it's just as important to know what to expect of a pilot when you issue altitude instructions.

Types of Altitude Changes

For issuing altitude changes you only have 6 choices for IFR aircraft and they are all outlined in the 7110.65 4-5-7 Altitude Information.

• Basic Altitude Instructions (to be performed immediately)
• Conditional (time or distance based) Altitude Instructions
• "Pilot's Discretion" Altitude Instructions
• Crossing Restrictions
• "Descend via" Altitude Instructions
• "Anticipated" Altitude Instructions

Often you'll find a couple of different methods combined into one instruction, such as a "pilot's discretion" descent coupled with a crossing restriction. These will be covered as we go through the section.

Basic Altitude Instructions

"ACA301, Climb and Maintain 16,000."

This is probably the most common altitude instruction issued by ATC. The pilot is expected to begin his climb to 16,000 as soon as he receives the clearance. It is this type of altitude change you hear most controllers on VATSIM using, however, it may not always be the most ideal type...

To assign a lower altitude to an IFR aircraft say:

"ACA301, Descend and Maintain 5000."

To instruct a pilot who is currently at 15,000 to stay at that altitude, you may say:

"ACA301, Maintain 15,000."

Conditional Altitude Instructions

"Southwest 101, climb to flight level 240 at 1130, time now 1115."

The pilot is expected to climb at his own discretion to reach flight level 240 by 1130. Time instruction was issued is 1115. He has 15 minutes to complete the climb.

"American 127, descend to reach 17,000 at 1015 and 12,000 at 1030, time now 1005."

This is a conditional descent through a "relay". The pilot is expected to descend to reach 17,000 at 1015, then to descend to reach 12,000 at 1030. The instruction was issued at 0940. The pilot has 10 minutes to reach 17,000, then he has 15 minutes to reach 12,000. The descent is at the pilot's discretion.

NOTE: When issuing a time conditional altitude change, a time check MUST be given.

"Pilot's Discretion" Altitude Instructions

"Northwest 31 heavy, descend at pilot's discretion, maintain 14,000."

The pilot has to do the math here. Notice that the altitude assignment comes AFTER the "descend at pilot's discretion". In this case, the pilot may begin his descent when he's ready, and his final altitude needs to be 14,000. You can also issue a "Climb at pilot's discretion" using the same method.

"Continental 25, descend now to flight level 270, then descend at pilot's discretion, maintain flight level 220."

This is one of those "combination" instructions that were mentioned at the beginning of this lesson. Notice how the first part of the altitude instruction is "mandatory" while the second is at "at pilot's discretion".

Crossing Restrictions

"Cactus 85, cross Modesto [VOR] at and maintain 11,000."

This altitude instruction is commonly used. The pilot had been instructed to descend (or climb) to cross Modesto at and maintain 11,000. The fact that it is at "pilot's discretion" is implied and you should NOT say it.

Notice that the pilot is expected to MAINTAIN 11,000 after Modesto. You must be specific in your use of verbs.

"ACA301, cross CATTY At 8,000, descend and maintain 5,000."

Uh oh! A curveball! Is the pilot expected to cross CATTY at 8,000, or 5,000? Is he supposed to descend now to 5,000, then climb back up to cross CATTY at 8,000?

Actually, neither! This instruction tells the pilot to descend at pilot's discretion to cross CATTY at 8,000, THEN to descend and maintain 5,000 immediately after CATTY (not at pilot's discretion!). This can be very helpful in setting aircraft up for an approach in advance. You can issue one instruction to accomplish two descents!

"KLM 45 heavy, descend now to flight level 230, cross Sacramento [VOR] at or below 17,000, descend and maintain 11,000."

Man! You guessed it! THREE descents covered in one instruction!

In this case, the pilot is asked to descend NOW to FL230, then to cross SAC at or below 17,000, then after SAC, descend and maintain 11,000. Notice the "at or below" portion.

It's quite acceptable to ask a pilot to cross a fix or waypoint at or above or at or below a specific altitude. As a matter of fact, these types of crossing restrictions are often used on both Standard Terminal Arrivals (STARs) and Departure Procedures (DPs).

You can tell this type of restriction on a STAR or DP chart by looking at the altitudes on the chart. Some of the altitudes have a number with a line underneath it such as "11,000". This would mean that the aircraft must cross that point at or above 11,000.

If the chart showed the altitude as "11,000", then it would mean the restriction is that the aircraft must cross at or below 11,000.

"Descend via" Altitude Instructions

Similar to altitude instructions that contain a crossing restriction, this instruction usually involves a STAR. This is also known as a "profile descent".

"Southwest 2309, descend via the CIVET 4 arrival."

A "profile descent" is a STAR which has a specific altitude crossing restriction assigned to each waypoint on the procedure. The example shown above was the CIVET 4 arrival into Los Angeles (KLAX). ZOA airspace does not currently contain any profile descents. All of the STARs in ZOA are "non-profile" descents, which means all of the altitude restrictions are not "hard" altitudes, rather they say "expect to cross XXX at YYY". That is what gives it away - if it says that - it's not a profile descent.

Take the Big Sur 2 arrival into San Francisco (KSFO) for example. The pilot sees the following under the SKUNK intersection:

"Expect to cross at or below 12,000."

This tells you it's a non-profile STAR and that you have to clear the aircraft to cross SKUNK at 12,000:

"Southwest 2309, cross SKUNK at or below 12,000."

NOTE: It's VERY important that you learn to recognize the difference between a profile descent and a non-profile descent. Both are very common throughout the USA, and as a controller, you need to be able to issue the correct instructions based on the type of STAR the pilot is on. This is commonly misunderstood on VATSIM.

"Anticipated" Altitude Instructions

Most commonly used when issuing a holding pattern, but may be used in other situations, this instruction is fairly straight forward:

"ACA301 expect lower in 5 minutes."

"ACA301, expect higher in 25 miles."

"ACA301, at CATTY, expect lower from Norcal Approach."

The last instruction tells the pilot that for some reason, you're unable to approve his altitude change at this time. Maybe it's due to traffic. Maybe you're about to handoff to another facility. Basically, you are filling the pilot in on what is going on - remember: we do not want our pilots to think we do not know what we are doing.

No need to say it twice

You do not have to specify the "type" of descent if it's implied. For example, the following are NOT examples of proper phraseology and should be avoided at all times (especially when your instructor is watching):

"United 23 heavy, cleared for the Modesto 2 arrival, cross CEDES at 11,000, descend at pilot's discretion."

The "descend at pilot's discretion is implied in the crossing restriction.

You also don't want to "mix" altitude change types. For example, don't say:

"ACA301, descend and maintain 5,000, descend at pilot's discretion."

Is he supposed to descend now to 5,000, or at his own discretion??

Remember above we saw that the "descend at pilot's discretion" should come BEFORE the altitude to maintain. It seems like semantics, but they are 2 different instructions, one of which is correct, one which is not.

Know the Aircraft's Capabilities

Take some time to learn the capabilities of the aircraft in your sky. You don't want to give a Boeing 747 a 10,000 foot descent 20 miles from where you need the altitude change to be completed. On the other hand, you don't need to give a Cessna 172 30 miles to descend 3,000 feet.

Just like in issuing turns, you should be aware of the aircraft's capabilities so you can properly plan your instructions ahead of time. Remember, Air Traffic Control is not unlike chess: A good controller sees his airspace the way it will look in 10 minutes and plans accordingly.

Required Reading

The links below explore the area of Altitude Instructions in greater depth.

7110.65 4-5-7 Altitude Information.

7110.65 4-5-8 Anticipated Altitude Changes.

7110.65 Appendix A. Aircraft Information.

Speed Adjustments

Using Speed for Proper Separation

"United 87 heavy, reduce speed 20 knots."

Why would you want to mess with an aircraft's speed you ask? Well, because this can be one of the most effective ways to ensure proper separation of aircraft in your airspace, provided you understand and execute speed adjustments correctly. The downside is that if you don't do it correctly, you can make a mess of your airspace in a real hurry! That's why this topic is so important.

This section will cover the phraseology for issuing speed changes to IFR aircraft. You should attempt to understand how and when each of the phraseology's variations should be used, and equally as important that you know what to expect of a pilot when you issue a speed change.

Speed Change Rules

For issuing speed changes, there are some general rules you need to know:

1. Speed changes should only be used to achieve or maintain the desired spacing between aircraft, and should be kept to a minimum.
2. The pilot has the ultimate authority and prerogative to refuse a speed change if he or she feels it's excessive, or if it will violate the aircraft's operating specifications.
3. The priority of a speed adjustment instruction is based on the relative speed and position of the aircraft involved.
4. Speed adjustments do NOT occur instantly! Especially if the aircraft is descending when the speed adjustment is issued. Plan ahead!
5. Do NOT issue a speed adjustment to aircraft:

• Above FL 390 without the pilot's consent (this is important only for Center/Enroute controllers)
• Executing a published high altitude instrument approach
• In a holding pattern
• Inside the final approach fix on final, or within 5 miles of the runway, whichever is closer.

Remember that under 10,000 feet and/or within 40 miles of the aircraft's destination, they are almost always restricted to 250 knots indicated or slower. There are a couple of places in the USA (Houston, TX comes to mind) where this restriction doesn't exist, but for the most part, and in all of ZOA, they are restricted to 250 knots for the above conditions.

When issuing a second speed adjustment to an aircraft and the first speed adjustment needs to be maintained, restate the first speed adjustment.

Approach clearances cancel ALL previous speed adjustments. If a speed adjustment is still needed during the approach, it must be restated.

Pilots complying with a speed adjustment are expected to maintain within 10 knots or .01 mach number of the specified speed.

Instructing an aircraft to maintain a specific speed

Below FL 240, speed adjustments must be expressed in knots based on the aircraft's indicated airspeed, and in 10 knot increments

"United 356, maintain 270 knots."

"Delta 54, increase speed to 250 knots."

"Southwest 65, reduce speed to 210 knots."

Turbojet aircraft at or above FL 240 should be given speed adjustments in terms of mach number, in increments of .01 mach

"American 127, maintain mach 0.71"

"United 34, increase speed to mach 0.82"

"Cactus 876, reduce speed to mach 0.77"

Note 1: Indicated airspeed is NOT the same as ground speed, which is what we see on our scopes on VATSIM! Ever hear "American 23, maintain 230 knots or slower", and the pilot responds with "I'm already at 220 knots??" This is because as an aircraft climbs, in conjunction with the barometric pressure (altimeter), it's ground speed increases while it's indicated airspeed decreases.

A typical airliner at FL 290 will show an indicated airspeed of around 250 knots, and a ground speed of 500 knots (You'll see the 500 on your scope). Take the same aircraft flying at the same indicated airspeed, but only at 8,000 feet, and his ground speed will be around 260 knots.

Basically, as the air gets thinner (higher altitudes), the indicated airspeed decreases, while the ground speed increases.

Note 2: One of the biggest "mysteries" for VATSIM controllers is the question of "is this pilot using indicated airspeed, or true airspeed?" True airspeed is almost identical to ground speed, and for our purposes, you can treat it as being identical. Real world aircraft and pilots operate using indicated airspeed. However, Flight Simulator gives the sim pilot the choice between true airspeed and indicated airspeed, and by default, unless the setting is chosen in the FS options, the pilot will be seeing true airspeed on his virtual flight deck.

So how to you know without asking if this guy on your scope is using true or indicated airspeed? In most cases you won't know. The only clue might be if you had a pilot showing 450 knots ground speed on your scope at say FL 270, and you asked him to "maintain 200 knots for spacing", and he ends up stalling the aircraft and crashing. This would be because at that altitude, slowing to 200 knots true airspeed would slow the aircraft so much, it would stall.

The best thing to do if you're not sure, is ask the pilot if he knows which he's using. Most sim pilots who use indicated airspeed know that they do. If the pilot doesn't understand the question, or doesn't know the answer, he's probably using true airspeed. And if that doesn't tell you, ask him what airspeed he sees on the flight deck. If it seems to be too fast for the altitude he's at (remembering that indicated airspeed is lower at higher altitudes), he's almost certainly seeing true airspeed.

Instructing an aircraft to adjust it's speed by a certain amount

"ACA301, reduce speed 20 knots."

"Southwest 101, increase speed 10 knots."

Pretty cut and dried. And remember, this is in indicated airspeed, not ground speed or true airspeed.

Maintaining speed

"Northwest 31 heavy, maintain present speed."

Very simple. Please don't speed up. Please don't slow down.

"Continental 25, maintain mach 0.79"

"American 898, maintain 250 knots."

This could be a speed increase or a speed decrease, or neither. It just depends on what the current airspeed is. The pilot should slow down or speed up to maintain the speed specified if needed, or if he's at that speed, he knows not to change.

More or Less

"Cactus 85, maintain 280 knots or greater."

Here you're asking the pilot to maintain at least 280 knots indicated.

"ACA301, maintain 210 knots or slower."

You got it. The pilot should go no faster then 210 knots indicated. See, pretty easy stuff!

"KLM 45 heavy, maintain maximum forward speed."

Now that's an interesting one! Here you're asking the pilot to go as fast as he can. Can be useful in separating him from another aircraft, don't you think?

"Delta 235, maintain slowest practical speed."

And this one tells the pilot to go as slow as possible without stalling his aircraft. Another useful instruction for increasing separation.

Putting it all together

Ok, so now you have a pretty good foundation on how to issue speed changes. But how do you know who to issue them to?

When you have multiple aircraft in an "in-trail" situation (one aircraft following closely behind another), you may either:

• Increase the speed of the lead aircraft
• Reduce the speed of the in-trail aircraft

Or... you can do both.

Remember, while airspeed changes are not instant, they can certainly sneak up on you quickly! If you increase the airspeed of an aircraft in-trail of another aircraft, you'll be surprised at how quickly he may catch up to the lead aircraft if you're not careful. That's why it's always better to either speed up the guy in front, and/or slow down the guy in-trail.

I know what you're wondering! "Can I combine a speed change with another instruction?"

You sure can, but be careful! Speed changes with climbs and descents can be tricky! But you'll typically use something like:

"American 58 heavy, cross SKUNK at or below 12,000 at 250 knots."

This gives the pilot his pilot's discretion descent (or climb) and tells him what speed to maintain upon reaching the SKUNK intersection.

How do I know the aircraft's current airspeed?

Well, as you can see from some of the instructions above, you don't always need to know, but if you do....

"Southwest 2309, say airspeed."

"UPS 92 heavy, say mach number."

Now of course, this IS VATSIM! You'll sometimes get the class clown who will reply with "airspeed", or "mach number." Or, you may have an inexperienced pilot who doesn't understand the question, and either he won't even answer you, or he may ask you to repeat or clarify your request.

But a good experienced pilot, even here on VATSIM, should reply with "..indicating 240 knots" , or .."Mach 0.82"

Aircraft Capabilities

Take some time to learn the capabilities of different aircraft. You don't want to give a Boeing 747 a speed reduction when he's only 5 miles behind a Cessna doing 150 knots faster then the little guy. He'd never slow down in time.

On the other hand, you don't need to give a Cessna 172 a speed increase to 350 knots as he probably can't go that fast.

Just like in issuing turns, climbs, and descents, you should be aware of the aircraft's capabilities so you can properly plan your instructions ahead of time. And always have a "backup" plan in your mind in case your first strategy doesn't work!

Required Reading

The links below explore the area of Speed Adjustments in greater depth.

7110.65 5-7-1. Speed Adjustments.

7110.65 Appendix A. Aircraft Information.

Minimum Vectoring Altitudes

Minimum Vectoring Altitudes (MVAs) are the lowest MSL altitude at which an IFR aircraft will be vectored by a radar controller, except as otherwise authorized for radar approaches, departures, and missed approaches. The altitude meets IFR obstacle clearance criteria. Note that the MVA may be higher or lower than a published MEA along an airway or J-route segment in that area. Charts depicting minimum vectoring altitudes are normally available only to the controllers and not to pilots.

It may be tempting for a student departure controller to give a departing aircraft a vector straight to the first fix as soon as they have radar contact. However this is absolutely the wrong thing to do if the aircraft has not yet reached the MVA during its climb. Unless it is otherwised authorized by a published departure procedure that the aircraft is flying (for example the SHOR1 out of KSFO), the departure controller must wait until the aircraft reaches the MVA before issuing any turns. This is particularly important to remember in areas such as Reno, where you have high rising terrain all around the airport.

How to dislpay MVAs on the scope

MVA data is displayed on ZOA Approach and Center sector files. This section assumes ZOA Center file version 6.6 or later.

To view MVA data, first be sure you are using the latest published version of the ARTCC sector file. Obtain the file from the "downloads" section of the ARTCC website.

In ASRC:

• Display MVA area boundaries - Select "ARTCC LOWBND" using the MAP function from the DC rollout control.

• Display MVA altitudes - Select "NDB" and "NDB LABEL" using the MAP function from the DC rollout control.

In VRC:

• Display MVA area boundaries - in the "View" menu select "Low Boundaries" so that it is checked.

• Display MVA altitudes - in the "View" menu select "NDBs" and "NDB Labels" so that they are checked.

The lowest altitude inside an area is now displayed in hundreds of feet. For example "31" means 3100' is the lowest safe altitude that may issued by ATC while the aircraft is in that region.

Using realistic digital MVA maps in VRC:

Some of the ZOA staff have prepared digital MVA maps reflecting something closer to real-world MVAs for many areas in the ZOA airspace. The procedure for displaying these MVA maps is different than what is described above.

• Display MVA maps - in the "View" menu select "Diagrams," then select the appropriate MVA map diagram that is listed under SIDs. For example, "(MVA map: NORCAL MOSAIC)"

If you compare these maps to the MVA Boundaries displayed using the other methods above, you will notice some differences. These differences have to do with real-world radar visibility due to terrain and line-of-sight issues. So in many locations you will see that the realistic MVA maps have higher MVAs than those MVA boundaries designed specifically for use in VATSIM (where radar visibility is not constrained by the physical world).

Aircraft Separation

Introduction

As an Air Traffic Controller, it's your job to separate traffic. Besides just keeping the airplanes from hitting each other, you also have to know specific separation minima so as to keep everyone at a safe distance.

The following will explain to you your responsibilities (i.e. who gets separation priority when the skies get really busy), separation minimums based on aircraft weight class, how to issue traffic advisories and when it's appropriate to do so, visual separation and much much more.

This is one of the most important aspects of your job as an Air Traffic Controller.

Responsibilities: IFR/VFR Separation

Let's start out with separation responsibilities. Your main job is to separate IFR traffic from one another. IFR aircraft rely entirely on ATC to keep them from hitting other aircraft. This is because most IFR pilots are flying very fast jet aircraft at high altitude where a closure speed (the speed of two planes coming at each other combined) can exceed mach 1, so by the time they see each other it's too late. That's basically why IFR is your primary responsibility.

When you're controlling an IFR aircraft, you also need to keep it separated from VFR guys as well, even if they're not talking to you. If for example, your controlling someone in class E airspace and there's a VFR aircraft on a converging course, you need to inform the IFR pilot, issue a traffic advisory if necessary and finally issue a turn or climb to avoid the traffic if absolutely necessary. Assuming you've read up on airspace, you'll know that VFR aircraft don't need to talk to anyone in class E, their job is to stay in visual conditions so that they can see and avoid other traffic. Still, separation between an IFR aircraft and a VFR aircraft is optional, mainly due to the fact that many VFR airplanes in real life aren't equipped with or using their transponders, and don't even show up on radar. Since everyone on VATSIM shows up though, IFR-VFR separation should be exercised whenever possible.

VFR airplanes (although they're not required to talk to anyone outside of class B, C, or D airspace), often request flight following and traffic advisories. Since IFR is your main responsibility, this should be done workload permitting. Separating VFR from IFR is another workload permitting thing, because you only can if they're in B/C/D airspace or on flight following. Separating VFR from another VFR aircraft is at the bottom of the list and is workload permitting, but it should be accommodated if traffic is light enough for you to provide flight following in the first place.

Seem like a mouthful? Here's a quick reference list of responsibilities:

• Separation between IFR aircraft is mandatory.
• Separation between IFR and VFR should be exercised if possible.
• Separation between VFR and IFR can be done if the VFR pilot is on flight following/wants traffic advisories workload permitting.
• Separation between two VFR aircraft can be done workload permitting if one wants flight following, otherwise they're on their own.

Aircraft Classification

Aircraft separation differs between various sizes of airplanes, so based on weight they are given Classifications. These are:

• Small
• Large
• B757
• Heavy
• Super (Airbus A-380)

Small is obviously the lightest. Examples would be a C172 or a Beech Baron. Large includes things like Commuter turboprops and Small business Jets to MD-80s and Boeing 727s and 737s. The Boeing 757 is in it's own category, because it's not quite as big as the heavies, but it still generates a wake much larger than that of the large category of aircraft (more on wake turbulence later). The Heavy category includes big wide-body jets like the Boeing 747, 767, 777, MD-11, Tristar, C-5 etc. These are huge and slow to turn and they kick up massive wakes requiring more distance from other aircraft. And finally, for the double-decker Airbus A-380 that entered commercial service in 2007, the FAA created a new classification, "Super."

Separation Standards

Lateral Separation

Here is the minimum lateral (horizontal) separation between two aircraft of the same weight class.

• When closer than 40 nm from the center of your screen (the radar antenna) - 3 nm
• When 40 nm or more from center - 5 nm

Beyond those basic minimums, here is a list minimums for certain instances involving larger weight classes (rule of thumb, you're almost always safe with 5 nm).

Cruise:

• Heavy behind Heavy - 4 nm
• Heavy behind B757 - 4 nm
• Small behind B757 - 5 nm
• B757 behind a Heavy - 5 nm
• Small behind Heavy - 5 nm

Different separation minimums apply when lining people up on approach, due to wake turbulence:

• Small behind large - 4 nm
• Small behind B757 - 5 nm
• Small behind Heavy - 6 nm

Vertical Separation

Here is the minimum vertical separation between two aircraft (note that weight class is not a factor).

• Below FL290 - 1000 ft
• FL300 to FL410 with RVSM - 1000 ft
• FL300 to FL410 with no RVSM - 2000 ft
• Above FL410 for all aircraft - 2000 ft
• FL600 and above - 5000 ft
• Oceanic aircraft above FL450 - 4000 ft

Traffic Advisories

When aircraft get close together it's the job of the controller to let the pilot know where other aircraft close to him are, because pilot's can't see and avoid if they never see the traffic. Obviously, traffic advisories don't apply to, and are not very useful to pilots in IFR conditions. There's a basic structure for traffic advisories that should be followed whenever possible:

"[Callsign] Traffic [Cardinal heading] O'clock, [Distance in miles] [Direction of flight if known] [Current altitude] a [Aircraft type] Report in sight."

Cardinal heading is one of 12 numbers on a clock based on directly forward being 12, directly behind being 6, etc. Here are some examples of traffic advisories:

"ACA301 Traffic 10 O'clock 4 miles opposite direction climbing through 7,600 a Boeing 727 report him in sight."

"N104TP Traffic 5 O'clock 2 miles westbound, indicating 4,500 unverified, Report in sight."

Variations are also acceptable; just make sure you get everything in there:

"SWA838 traffic a Cessna Skyhawk 1 O'clock 3 miles eastbound 400 feet above you descending."

The biggest problem new approach controllers have with traffic advisories is poor judgment! They either don't issue them at all, or they issue them all the time to aircraft for traffic 25 miles away and 6000 feet above. Traffic advisories are your discretion and you need to use your best judgment on when to issue them. Here are example scenarios:

A.) A B737 and Lear 45 are nose-to-nose 3 miles away from each other. The B737 is descending through 5100 and the Lear is Climbing through 11000.

B.) A C172 is converging with a Baron. One is at 2000 the other is at 2500, and they are 6 miles away from each other.

For which of these would you choose to issue a traffic advisory?

The answer is B, because although they're closer together in A, there's 5900 ft between them. There's no way that would ever be a safety factor. B however has two airplanes with similar converging courses at close altitudes fairly close together. This is a more potentially dangerous. Use your best judgment, don't bother with people more than 2000 ft vertically separated or more than 10 miles away from each other. If they get really close, you use another kind of traffic advisory called a Safety Alert.

Safety Alerts

"N6527R TRAFFIC ALERT! 12 o'clock less than 1 mile same altitude a Boeing 737 passing right to left, report in sight."

You can add instructions:

"…Advise you turn 90 degrees right and descend immediately."

When aircraft get too close issue a Traffic Alert. Safety alerts can also be issued as a Low Altitude Alert, when aircraft descend too low and collision with terrain is imminent.

"Cheyenne 104TP LOW ALTITUDE ALERT! Check your altitude. My minimum vectoring altitude is 3500 in your area."

Visual Separation

Visual Separation means that responsibility for not hitting another aircraft is passed from the controller to the pilot. It can only be issued after a traffic advisory, in VFR weather when the pilot has the other aircraft in sight. Visual separation can also only be used below FL180 (the border of class A airspace), probably because closure speeds become too fast above that altitude. The Pilot can Refuse Visual separation. Here's an example of visual separation:

"Air Canada 301 traffic 12 o'clock 6 miles same direction a Boeing 737 descending through 4,800 report him in sight."

"OK, 301 has the Traffic in sight"

"Air Canada 301 Maintain visual separation."

"Maintain Visual Separation from the 737, Air Canada 301."

Separation and Visual Approaches

Visual separation can also be used to simplify visual approaches by making aircraft follow each other. I'll illustrate this using two charted visual approaches into SFO, the Tip Toe and the Quiet Bridge. Let's assume ACA301 is around BOLDR intersection.

"ACA301 traffic 12 o'clock 6 miles same direction a Boeing 737 descending through 4,800 report him in sight."

"Traffic in sight, 301."

"ACA301 follow the 737, Cross Menlo at or above 5000, cleared Tip Toe Visual runway 28L."

"Ok cleared Tip Toe 28L following the 737, ACA301."

"ACA301 additional traffic 1-2 O'clock 7 miles westbound on the quiet bridge for 28R, a Piper Cheyenne descending through 4000 report him in sight."

"301 has the Piper at our 2."

"Boeing 6527 Romeo maintain 170 or faster to the bridge please, number 1."

"Roger 170 or more 27R, 27 Romeo."

"Cheyenne 4 Tango Papa maintain 170 to the bridge for sequencing, traffic 11 o'clock 3 miles a 737 at 1,900 caution wake turbulence."

"Ok 170 kts we got the 737, 4 Tango Papa."

"ACA301 Maintain 170 or slower to the bridge for sequencing, number two following the 737."

"170 or less 301."

Seems like a lot but the approach controller just sent three planes on staggered parallel visual approaches into SFO. Understanding visual separation is the first step learning how to do this. Just remember you can't send people on visual approaches or use visual separation if the weather is IFR!

Wake Turbulence Separation

In a brief explanation, wake turbulence is caused by vortexes that form on the trailing edge of each wingtip of a large aircraft. Essentially they are miniature horizontal tornadoes that rip pieces of other airplanes, flip them upside-down on approach, etc. This is why Heavy aircraft need 6 miles behind them on approach and 3 minutes for the turbulence to dissipate on departure.

When an aircraft is within five miles or so of a large jet aircraft, it's good practice to issue wake turbulence advisories, even though wake turbulence doesn't exist in FS. To do so, just say:

"Caution wake turbulence [additional info]."

Example:

"27R Taxi into position and hold, caution wake turbulence Boeing 747 Heavy just departed same runway."

"Cleared to land 28L, number 2, follow the 737 on short final, wind 280 at 6."

Required Reading

Pointouts

Introduction

When working as an Approach/Departure or Center Controller there will be times when you will need to have some air traffic that is in your control enter the airspace of another controller, or maybe he will need to have someone from his control come into your airspace while maintaining control of that traffic.

This section is designed to make the procedure for handling these situations a little easier and more fun for you as the controller. It is really easy to handle these planes and by the time you finish reading this tutorial you should have the process down and with a little practice you will be a pro at handling POINTOUTS.

A pointout is a request from one controller to enter the airspace of another controller without transferring control or communications. One controller often needs to request a pointout from another controller when an aircraft will only be in their airspace for a short amount of time.

Pointouts can be accomplished through the use of Chat Messages in VRC, through the use of Ground-to-Ground communications in ASRC, or through voice communications in a separate tool such as Teamspeak, but only if both controllers have agreed to utilize that method.

Phraseology

POINTOUT is where you state the word Pointout and give the AC’s position, callsign, and your request to the other controller. This may done either by Ground to Ground voice communications or by chat box:

"Pointout, ACA301, 3nm South of MENLO, 6000 ft, Extended Downwind for 28L San Francisco"

The receiving controller has three options for their response:

POINTOUT APPROVED which means you may enter his/her airspace as requested and retain control of the aircraft. He may also issue restrictions which you must obey.

RADAR CONTACT which means in order to enter his airspace you must handoff the aircraft to him.

UNABLE which means you may not enter his airspace at all.

There are three other terms associated with pointout that you need to know:

TRAFFIC Along with an aircrafts position used by the controller approving a pointout means Separate your pointout aircraft from this aircraft of mine while you’re in my airspace.

TRAFFIC OBSERVED Used by the controller requesting the pointout means I see your aircraft and will separate my pointout aircraft from it.

YOUR CONTROL when used by the controller approving the pointout means "Anything you want to do with the pointout aircraft in my airspace is approved."

Example 1: Standard Pointout

An aircraft is on downwind for Rwy 28L into SFO and you have a second plane on the BSR2 arrival that is in close. so you want to extend the downwind traffic into Norcal A App Airspace in order that you may sequence it into the arrivals for 28L.

"Norcal A, Norcal B, POINTOUT ACA301, 3nm South of MENLO, 6000 ft, Extended Downwind for 28L San Francisco."

"Norcal A, Pointout Approved."

"DS"

In this example, Sector B requested a pointout from Sector A and identified the aircraft's location along with the reason for the pointout.

Sector A approved the pointout request without any restrictions.

Sector B acknowledges the approval by giving his operating initials.

Example 2: Traffic

Another example of the same arrival with the extended downwind. This time however the San Jose controller has traffic that he wants the pointout to stay separated from.

"Norcal A, Norcal B, Pointout ACA301, 3nm South of MENLO, 6000 ft, Extended Downwind for 28L San Francisco."

"Norcal A, Pointout Approved, Traffic AAL123, Northbound climbing 3-9000."

"Traffic Observed, DS"

In this example, Sector B asked for and got approval to enter sector A's airspace again, but this time the sector A controller put a different type of restriction on the pointout. By making reference to "traffic" (AAL123) in the area, he is telling Sector B to keep the pointout clear of that traffic while in his sky. Sector B acknowledges the traffic by saying "Traffic Observed" then closes the dialog with his operating initials.

Example 3: Restriction

This example uses the same arrival, and the controller in San Jose will give a restriction to maintain 6,000 feet while in his airspace.

"Norcal A, Norcal B, Pointout ACA301, 3nm South of MENLO, 6000 ft, Extended Downwind for 28L San Francisco."

"Norcal A, Pointout Approved, maintain 6000 ft."

"Maintain 6K, DS"

In this example, Sector B asked for and got approval to enter sector A's airspace again, but this time the sector A controller put a restriction on the pointout with an altitude restriction of 6K. Sector B acknowledges the restriction and then closes the dialog with his operating initials.

Example 4: Your Control

For this example, Sector E has traffic who is has called "missed appraoch" for KSMF runway 16R. The aircraft will climb and maintain 5000 and vectored on right downwind for 16R approach. Sector E has decided to call Sector D for a pointout in the event that this traffic may cross over into the "D" airspace.

"Norcal D, Norcal E, Pointout FFT321 crossing ELMAC 3000 climbing 5000 vectors for 16R SMF."

"Norcal E, Your Control"

"My Control, DS"

Sector E asks for a pointout, Sector D grants it. Only this time, Sector E has been cleared to do anything he wishes with his pointout while in Sector D airspace. The "E" controller is free to make any altitude or direction changes that he wishes. The dialog is again ended with an acknowledgement, the controller's opeating initials.

Example 5: Unable

Let's revisit the previous example. If the controller of Sector D decided that there was too much going on nearby in his sector and could not approve the pointout, he can simply respond with UNABLE.

"Norcal D, Norcal E, Pointout, FFT321 crossing ELMAC 3000 climbing 5000 vectors for 16R SMF."

"Norcal E, UNABLE, Numerous aircraft in vicinity."

"DS"

Radar Contact

In the same situation as above, the Sector D controller may choose to just take control of the aircraft while in his airspace. By responding "Radar Contact", he is accepting a handoff from Sector E, who must then transfer radio communications."

"Norcal D, Norcal E, Pointout, FFT321 crossing ELMAC 3000 climbing 5000 vectors for 16R SMF."

"Norcal E, RADAR CONTACT."

"DS"

(Back on ATC frequency) "Frontier 321, contact Norcal Approach on 135.10, g'day"

Required Reading

Instrument Approaches

Types of Approaches

Many controllers and pilots on VATSIM have only a very basic understanding of Instrument Approach Procedures (IAPs). Generally, we tend to treat an IAP as simply an instruction to "join the localizer". This section will give you a detailed look at IAPs and cover pilot and ATC responsibilities during the approaches.

First off, there are two types of approaches:

Precision

Precision Approaches are those with some means of descent guidance. There are three types of precision approaches however only one is modeled in Flight Simulator.

ILS (Instrument Landing System) - This is by far the most commonly used approach on VATSIM. ILS Approaches have the lowest minimums and its components are the Localizer, the Approach Lighting, Marker Beacons, and the Glideslope. ILS approaches can be of three categories ("Cat I", "Cat II", "Cat III"). If not specifically stated on the chart, then it is a Category 1 Approach. These refer to increasingly accurate tolerances of the ground based transmitters, the avionics, and crew training, that allow lower approaches to be flown in increasingly poor WX conditions down to no minimums. There is no actual difference modeled in Flight Simulator panels or scenery.

MLS (Microwave Landing System) NOT MODELED - MLS uses a single frequency, broadcasting the azimuth and altitude information one after the other. It was intended to replace ILS but with the popularity and accuracy of GPS, the FAA suspended the MLS project in 1994

PAR (Precision Approach Radar) - this has been practiced by some VATSIM controllers, mostly virtual military organizations, and is not commonly used. It is an approach where a high-precision radar display is used by a controller, who then "talks" the pilot down, by issuing "left/right" "hi/low" commands. These are not authorized for ZOA controllers to issue.

Non-Precision

Non-Precision Approaches have no descent guidance. These are:

NDB - using the non-directional-beacons (NDBs) and the Automated Direction Finder (ADF) gauge.

VOR, VOR/DME - these approaches use a VOR radial to track to the airport.

RNAV (Area Navigation) - R/Nav systems as originally designed never caught on. They were 1970's era units that allowed waypoints to be defined as radials and distances from VOR/DME. These approaches have now found a new life with modern GPS and FMS systems.

TACAN (Tactical Air Navigation) - these use the military TACAN system, which functions similarly to a VOR/DME approach.

LOC, LOC/DME (Localizer) This uses the localizer system of an ILS, but does not include the glideslope system.

LDA (Localizer Directional Aid) - This is an "offset localizer", meaning it is a localizer that is not aligned with the runway. A pilot will track the localizer beam until he sees the field, and then will have to adjust to line up with the runway.

ASR (Airport Surveillance Radar) - similar to a PAR, but using the standard ASR radar, which does not have a vertical component.

GPS - NDB, VOR, TACAN, and RNAV approaches are frequently being authorized for so-called "GPS overlay" approaches. This means that all the associated fixes on the approach can be programmed into a GPS and the GPS system can be used for course guidance. Example names are "VOR or GPS-A" or "RNAV or GPS Runway 14".

It should be noted that ILS approaches revert to non-precision LOC approaches if the glideslope component is out of service. The approach plates usually have the symbology of non-precision approaches indicated for this contingency.

PTAC

"WWA5767, 8 miles from DUYET, turn left heading 310 maintain 1800 until established. Cleared ILS runway 28 left approach."

You may or may not have heard of PTAC before but it is one of the most essential pieces of phraseology an approach controller needs in his/her arsenal. This phraseology is used to clear most aircraft to execute an instrument approach procedure. Once you have this down in your head you will soon be comfortable clearing ANY aircraft for ANY approach. It is ESSENTIAL that you understand the components of this phraseology - there should be NEXT TO NO DEVIATION from it.

What is PTAC?

PTAC is an acronym to help us remember the proper phraseology used when clearing an aircraft for an IFR approach.

Here are the components of the PTAC phraseology. We will also look at each of the components separately. This will be drummed into your head, because if you don't know this stuff, you will have a hard time working approach.

• Position
• Turn
• Altitude
• Clearance

Now - it should be noted there are a few situations when the full PTAC form is not needed. To identify these situations, you will need a good understanding of instrument approach procedures, as explained under the section "Understanding Approaches".

Basically, a PTAC clearance is not needed when:

1. You are sure a pilot has the instrument chart you will be clearing him for.
2. The pilot is on a cleared route that includes a published feeder segment or an IAF for the approach.
3. The pilot seems to be knowledgeable in instrument approach procedures.

Otherwise, stick the the PTAC form of approach clearance described here.

P - Postion

"8 miles from BRIJJ"

The position aspect of PTAC can be a distance from any Navaid or waypoint in the vicinity. This Navaid or wayoint is usually one contained on the approach plate itself. It is good practice to give the pilots their position from the OM or FAF if being vectored onto the localizer, and a position from the IAF if being cleared for a full approach.

There are two good reasons to give the pilot this position information:

If you give the OM (Outer Marker) or the FAF (Final Approach Fix) this tells the pilot how far they have to go until they REALY need to be established on the procedure or go to plan B (The Missed Approach).

When you have provided vectors to the aircraft, this confirms the aircraft’s position to the pilot who has been letting YOU do the navigation work for them since you told them "Turn left heading 340 vectors ILS 28L approach".

Try not to use any unnecessary words when giving the position to the pilot. Here are such examples of poor phraseology:

"I have you about 9 miles from ALVAR"

"You are 9 miles from ALVAR"

"Approximately 9 miles from ALVAR"

Remember the correct praseology is:

"WWA5767, 9 miles from ALVAR"

T - Turn

"Turn left heading 260"

The turn provides the pilot the correct heading needed to get established on an approach. This can be a vector to a localizer, to a navaid, a radial, or to a waypoint.

If vectoring onto a localizer you should ALWAYS try and give an intercept of 20-30 degrees. Anything greater than 30 degrees is a tough turn (and may not be legal) and anything less than 20 degrees can be too shallow for the pilot to get the localizer.

If the pilot is already on the heading you want them on you should simply say, "Fly present heading," or, "Fly Heading 260".

Sometimes you get a pilot who is on a routing that ends at an approach’s IAF. When this is the case, if you have not vectored the pilot off of their route and if this is the approach you have agreed upon for this pilot then you can optionally leave out the Turn aspect of PTAC (since they know where they are and are already heading for that waypoint as per flight plan route).

A - Altitude

"Maintain 1800 until established on the localizer."

The Altitude aspect of PTAC clears pilots to descend to an altitude while establishing themselves on the procedure.

This should never be lower than the MVA for that area except when the aircraft is already established on an instrument procedure or airway with a lower MEA.

The lower you give a pilot the more time that the pilot has to get established on the procedure before having to declare a missed approach.

85% of the time you will be issuing the Altitude aspect of PTAC as show in the example above. There will be times when there are alternate altitude instructions given in the case of a VOR or joining a Full Approach:

"Cross SUNOL at or above 3500"

C - Clearance

"Cleared ILS Runway 28L approach."

The Clearance aspect of PTAC stated the SPECIFIC approach that the pilot is cleared for.

It is IMPORTANT to state the TYPE and RUNWAY of the approach as stated on the plate, instead of just saying "The Approach".

When you clear a pilot for an approach, you also clear them to fly the MISSED APPROACH as published on the approach plate. You are responsible for protecting the airspace where that approach and missed approach takes place well.

To be accurate, controllers are allowed to use an abbreviated instruction, "cleared approach", without specifying the type or runway, under certain conditions (such as an airport only has one approach). However, as VATSIM pilots are often not fully aware of IFR procedures, and often do not have a full set of charts, we tend to discourage this practice, unless you can be sure you are dealing with a fully competent IFR pilot.

Putting it all together

Use the skills outlined above to beat PTAC into your head. Over time you will find yourself getting accustomed to using proper phraseology and it will become easier and easier to say Position Turn Altitude Clearance with each use.

Also consider the pilot’s perspective. They are focusing on many things at the same time, especially during the approach phase of their flight. They train themselves to pick out the important parts of your transmissions and by giving them their approach clearance via standard phraseology they can easily pick that information out.

For example you might say:

"WWA5767, 8 miles from DUYET, turn left heading 310 maintain 1800 until established on the localizer. Cleared ILS runway 28 left approach."

Due to language differences, clarity of speech or more often quality of voice channel comms, the Pilot might hear & think:

"WWA5767" - OK that’s my callsign

"8 DUYET" - I am right here on this approach plate

"LEFT 310" - Starting my turn to the left to join

"1800" - OK set MCP ALT to 1800 just where I should be at the FAF according to the approach plate

"ILS 28L" - OK that’s what it says at the top of my plate

If you were to mix it up and say something like:

"WWA5767, Join the localizer at 2500, I have you 6 miles from BRIJJ, Turn now to heading of 260 and cleared the approach."

The pilot will have a lot of problem getting that into their brain properly the pilot is expecting a specific beat to the phraseology. This can be EXTREMELY important in the event that the pilot is not a fluent English speaker, or has poor radio transmission quality.

More examples

"ACA301, 6 miles from ALVAR, turn right heading 320, maintain 1600 until established on the localizer. Cleared ILS runway 29 approach."

"Continental 229 heavy, 5 miles from WOODY, turn left heading 310, maintain 3000 until established on the localizer, cleared ILS Runway 28 right Approach."

So - use the phraseology just as it’s presented to you and the pilots will appreciate the professional ATC and pretty soon you will not be searching for words when clearing a pilot for a weird approach into a field you have never heard of .

A few things to stay away from

Try NOT to catch yourself (or worse have your instructors catch you) saying the following:

"ACA301 I have you 6 miles from BRIJJ"

No "I have you please" - incorrect phraseology

"WWA5767, You're about 5 miles from ..."

No "abouts" this is a radar environment - you don't have to be EXACT on the distance on VATSIM - just make it SOUND like you are exact.

"...Descend and Maintain 2500 until ..."

Don't add extra words to the clearance - just say "maintain 2500 until..". In fact you should try not to add any unnecessary words to ANY of your phraseology. When you get busy - time on your frequency is gold - use it as little as possible.

"... until established on the localizer"

Just say "UNTIL ESTABLISHED" - the real intent here is for them to be established on THE APPROACH which is not always a localizer - and when you DO clear people for a non localizer approach - you will not sound very professional when you say "the localizer" out of habit

"Report Established on the localizer"

Please DO NOT add to the pilot's workload and add to your radio traffic unless there is a REALY GOOD reason. Keep an eye on the aircraft's progress - you should have a pretty good idea when they are established. Let the Europeans clog up their frequencies with this sort of thing if they want - it's not how we do it here at ZOA.

"Expedite your descent"

First of all - don't ask a pilot to EXPEDITE anything unless a quick reaction is needed "to avoid an imminent situation". On top of that - having a pilot descend too quickly on an approach will make it hard for them to control their speeds and trim settings for a controlled landing. If you think an aircraft is too high either SPIN THEM (a few vectors or a 360), SLOW THEM (slow them down), or simply ASK THEM (if they think they will get low enough to get the proper rate of descent).

"Contact the tower at the marker"

This makes you sound cool, but in reality it causes nothing but problems on VATSIM. Consider how long it takes for the pilot to locate the correct controller, change to their frequency, and then check in - all while flying an aircraft on final. Try and hand these aircraft off as soon as you no longer require control - if a guy is established on the approach, get rid of him and hand him over to tower.

Visual Approaches

Introduction

A Visual approach can be an excellent way for a pilot to end a long boring IFR flight with an exciting hands on arrival. It also reduces ATC workload - and if performed in conjunction with good weather it allows you to really "CRAM" those aircraft into an airport.

We’re going to take a look at two different types of visual approaches. The first is your garden-variety "vectored" visual approach, and the second is a published visual approach. Be sure that you understand this has nothing to do with VFR. This is a visual approach for an aircraft operating under Instrument Flight Rules, in VMC conditions.

Criteria for visual approaches

Before we get into the different approaches, let’s discuss the criteria that need to be present for a visual approach to take place.

You can look all of this up, along with some nice phraseology examples in the FAA 7110.65 section 7-4.

1. To provide "vectors" for a visual approach, the reported ceiling at the landing field must be at least 500 feet above the MVA
2. To actually CLEAR an aircraft for a visual approach, the landing field must be VFR, or for published visuals the landing field must be above the minimums published on the plate
3. The Pilot must report the field in sight, or the aircraft is to follow a preceding aircraft and the pilot reports the preceding aircraft in sight and is instructed to follow it, or for published visuals, the pilot reports a charted landmark on the approach in sight.

Separation

Once you clear that aircraft for the visual approach the pilot is responsible for his own terrain separation. They can freely descend below the normal profile and more importantly they can go below the MVA. You are still responsible for standard separation from other aircraft. You can (and often should) issue speed restrictions to maintain separation, especially when following another aircraft or being followed.

Once you clear them for the visual approach you are in essence "cutting them loose" so a good habit is to line them up for the runway and then clear them for the visual. When the pilot reports the field in sight - you do NOT have to clear them for the visual approach right away (sometimes you want to keep them just a little longer until they are lined up and clear of traffic).

Always try and point out the field as early as possible using this phraseology:

"SWA501, airpot at your 12 o’clock, 10 miles, report the field in sight."

In fs2002 aircraft usually can spot the field no farther than 12-13 nm out.

The "vectored" visual approach

This is the most common visual approach. The pilot may be using a localizer, glideslope, VOR, or GPS to back up their approach, but the central means of navigation for this approach is looking out the window.

First of all you must verify that the weather is legal for a visual approach. Then you want to make sure both you and the pilot understand that this will be a visual approach. Once you have that established you need to make sure the pilot reports the field in sight, and finally you clear them for the visual approach.

"Approach good evening, Air Canada 856 with you at 11,000."

"ACA856, Norcal Approach good evening, San Francisco reporting calm winds, VFR skies, altimeter 2998 expect the visual approach runway 28L."

"Copy the numbers expecting the visual approach runway 28L for ACA856."

"ACA856 fly heading 340 descend and maintain 5000, vectors for the visual approach runway 28L."

"340 and 5000 for the visual, 856."

"ACA856, turn left heading 280 descend and maintain 2000 the field is 12 miles at your 12 O Clock report the field in sight."

"OK, 280 and 2000 and we’re looking - 856."

"Approach, ACA856 has the field."

"ACA856, Cleared visual approach runway 28L, contact the tower now 120.5, see ya."

The "chained" visual approach

A sometimes-useful form of the visual approach is to have aircraft follow other traffic to the airport. The second aircraft does not have to see the field as long as they see the aircraft ahead of them and are instructed to follow that traffic. In fact, you could have 4 aircraft in sequence with only the first one seeing the field and the next following him, the third following the second, and so on.

REMEMBER you still need to separate those aircraft - do not neglect wake turbulence - use speed restrictions if necessary.

In this example there are 2 aircraft that will be cleared for the visual approach, the first (ACA856) by a normal "vectored" visual approach, and the second one (AAL327) will use the "chained" visual approach to follow the other traffic.

"Norcal, ACA856 heavy checking in with info Golf good evening."

"ACA856 heavy Norcal Approach good evening, departing BOLDR Fly heading 340 descend and maintain 5000, vectors for the visual approach runway 28L."

"OK 340 and 5 after BOLDR for the visual 28L sounds great, ACA856 heavy."

"Approach good evening AAL327 checking in out of 12 for 10."

"AAL327 good evening Norcal Approach, San Francisco reporting calm winds 10 miles visibility and clear skies altimeter 2998. What approach would you like this evening?"

"327 would like the visual please."

"AAL327 Roger, departing BOLDR, fly heading 340 descend and maintain 6000 vectors for the Visual approach runway 28L."

"After BOLDR heading 340 and down to 6000 for the visual 28L, AAL327."

(Note that by sending AAL327 to only 6000 we ensure these 2 aircraft have 1000’ vertical separation.)

"ACA856 heavy reduce speed to 210 knots, turn left heading 310, descend and maintain 2000. Airport will be at your 12 o’clock, 15 miles, report the field in sight."

"slowing to 210, then left 310 and 2000 and we will call the field, 856."

"AAL327 Slow to 210 knots, turn left heading 310 descend and maintain 3000."

"210 left 310 and out of 6 for 3000, AAL327."

"Approach, 856 has the field."

"ACA856 heavy, Cleared Visual approach runway 28L, maintain 190 knots or greater to the marker."

"190 to the marker, cleared visual 28L for 856 heavy."

(Note that giving the speed restriction of 190+ knots we are maintaining separation from the aircraft behind them.)

"AAL327 traffic, 12 o’clock, 9 miles, descending out of 4000 on final, a Boeing 767, report traffic in sight."

"327 has the 767 at 12 o’clock."

"AAL327, follow that traffic, Cleared Visual approach runway 28L, number 2. Maintain 190 to the marker caution wake turbulence."

"Cleared for the 28L visual #2 after the 767, 190 to the marker, AAL327."

Published visual approaches

Published visual are one of the most enjoyable approaches that a pilot on VATSIM can fly. They MUST have the chart on board, and the weather MUST be above the minimums for the published procedure. Make sure you are familiar with any other restrictions for the visual approach. For example, some published visuals cannot be performed at night. The published visuals have the pilot navigating a route as depicted on the chart you can clear them for the visual once they report one of the landmarks in sight.

In this example the published approach being used is San Francisco’s QUIET BRIDGE VISUAL RUNWAY 28 L/R.

"Approach AAL1028 checking in 11,000 over CEDES and we have info MIKE. G’day."

"AAL1028, Norcal Approach good afternoon. Expect the ILS 28R approach."

"Any chance of the Quiet Bridge Visual 28R for 1028?"

"AAL1028, no problem sir, turn right heading 250 descend and maintain 6000 vectors for the Quiet Bridge Visual 28R."

"250 and 6000 vectors for the visual, 1028."

"AAL1028 intercept the San Francisco 095 radial inbound."

"Join the 095 radial, 1028."

"AAL1028 descend and maintain 4000 report the airport or the San Mateo Bridge in sight."

"Down to 4000 and we’re looking for the bridge... ahh there it is! 1028 has the San Mateo Bridge."

"AAL1028, cleared Quiet Bridge Visual Approach runway 28R."

"Cleared the Quiet Bridge for the right side, AAL1028."

"AAL1028 traffic at your 10 o’clock, 4 miles, northbound out of 2500 and now turning final, a Boeing 737, he's for the left side."

"1028 has the traffic for the left side at 10 o’clock."

"AAL1028 maintain visual separation from that traffic, contact the tower now 120.5, see ya."

"Will maintain separation from the 737, going to tower, thanks for your help, AAL1028."

Departures

Handoffs

VFR Aircraft

VFR in Class B/C

The only Class B Airspace in Oakland ARTCC is at San Francisco. There are several Class C's. The boundaries can be viewed either on sectional charts or in your radar client. As you can see, the boundaries of the Class B (especially the vertical limits) are fairly complex. In some places it overhangs the Oakland and San Jose Class C Airspaces. Several general aviation airports lie outside the Surface Area but below floors. Due to this complexity, expect some VATSIM pilots to make mistakes. Don't overreact if an aircraft strays into the Class B without a clearance.

The purpose of Class B/C airspace is to minimize the number of transiting VFR aircraft operating in close proximity to busy terminal areas. The Class B/C volumes are designed to protect the approach and departure paths of the primary airport(s). If a VFR aircraft stays above or below the Class B/C volumes, and your IFR traffic is following standard STAR, DP, and IAP routes, you will generally have no separation issues. Occasionally, however, VFR aircraft may request a clearance to operate within the Class B/C, either to transit through, or to use an airport at or under the Class B/C.

These operations should not be considered a headache - they are really quiet simple. Use one of two approaches to handling VFR operations:

• When traffic is light - don't over-control. Let the VFR operate fairly unrestricted, and should a potential conflict develop, issue a traffic advisory to one or both aircraft as needed.

• When traffic is medium to heavy - place some form of restrictions on the VFR operation.

Remember that VFR flight is supposed to allow the pilot a good degree of freedom to choose his route or altitude. Avoid issuing overly restrictive clearances in the form of vectors ("proceed heading 150", "maintain 4500") in favor of clearances that provide more flexibility ("remain south of Oakland airport", "maintain VFR at or below 4500"). However, if a conflict situation is developing, don't hesitate to issue a "hard" vector.

Lets look at these approaches with some specific scenarios...

Class B/C VFR separation minima

Separation between targets in Class C are 500ft vertical and targets must be separated. Note that in Class C, VFR targets do not need to be separated from other VFR targets.

Separation minima for VFR aircraft in Class B are a bit more complex than Class C: Visual, 500ft vertical, 1.5 nm for VFR aircraft weighing more than 19,000lb, or radar target resolution for VFR aircraft weighting 19,000lb or less.

All aircraft in the SMALL Wake Turbulence Category weigh less than 19,000lb. Unless you want to memorize aircraft weights and try to decipher some of the non-standard aircraft designators used by SB pilots just use 1.5 nm for all VFR aircraft in the LARGE Wake Turbulence Category and target resolution for all SMALLs.

Aside from these three differences, controlling aircraft in Class B is the same as in Class C. Headings and altitudes may be assigned if necessary to ensure separation or establish a sequence but they're not mandatory. Departing aircraft are separated until they leave the Class B. Arriving aircraft may either be vectored into position in the arrival flow or sent to the tower for entry into the traffic pattern and subsequent sequencing.

Class B/C VFR arrivals and transits

VFR aircraft operating in Class C Airspace don't require a clearance, however to enter Class C Airspace they need to be in radio contact with the radar facility handling arrival sequencing. An explicit clearance is required for entry into the Class B.

After radar identifying VFR arrivals or transits APP tells arrivals into Class B they are "Cleared to enter BRAVO airspace."

If you really need an aircraft to remain outside the Class C/B you must tell it so:

SFO_APP: "Remain outside Bravo (Charlie) Airspace and standby."

If you are ready to sequence the aircraft, radar identify it and provide landing instructions.

Once the aircraft is in the Class B/C and radar identified, ATC becomes responsible for separating it from IFR aircraft by using visual separation, 500 feet vertically, or radar target resolution (ensuring the radar targets don't touch). In Class C, ATC isn't responsible for separating VFR aircraft from each other, but in Class B they are.

For VFR traffic, provide arrival instructions and any needed vectors or traffic advisories for sequencing. Attempt to reduce specific heading assignments and allow the aircraft to navigate VFR as much as possible. Example:

OAK_APP: "N12345, Enter midfield right downwind for runway 27R. Traffic is a Cessna 12o'clk 3 miles, 2000, ahead of you for runway 27R."

When sequenced with other traffic, VFR traffic is handed to the tower similar to IFR.

Transits leaving the Class B/C should be released like this:

SFO_APP: "N12345, Leaving the Class Bravo. Squawk 1200. Radar service terminated. Assume appropriate VFR altitudes. Frequency change approved."

Routing VFR in Class B/C

Now lets discuss methods to route VFR aircraft through the Class B/Cs.

Sometimes keeping a VFR aircraft below a certain altitude will help separate it from terminal operations. This approach can be useful it the VFR aircraft is going to operate for an extended time in your primary airport departure paths. Issue an altitude restriction such as "proceed VFR at/below 2500". When the aircraft is clear of the departure paths, don't forget to release the altitude (eg: "resume any appropriate VFR altitudes").

VATSIM controllers tend to force VFR aircraft in Class B/C to operate low (eg: "maintain VFR at/below 2500"). This actually may be counter-productive. Realize that the terminal traffic is operating on a "cone" funneling down to, or up from the primary airport. Consider when it appropriate to restrict the aircraft upwards. In this regard, view the Class B/C as a "V" shape, and place VFR aircraft UNDER departures, OVER the primary airports or UNDER arrivals. This approach can be combined with heading restrictions.

As stated earlier, only use "hard" heading assignments ("proceed heading 330") when really necessary. To keep aircraft clear of arrival or departure paths use restrictions such as,

"remain 3 miles south of the extended centerline of Oakland runway 29"

"remain west and south of Woodside VOR"

"proceed north following the coastline"

It may seem counter-intuitive, but a good approach is to send VFR aircraft TO the primary airport, but do it perpendicular to the active runways (eg: "Proceed direct Oakland and cross midfield at or above 3500"). APP must not intrude on TWRs airspace without a point-out, so insure your VFR is above the Class D (2500' AGL).

VFR from secondary airports

When VFR aircraft are operating to or from secondary airports within the Class B/C limits, visualize the operation in relation to your primary airport flows well before it begins and issue any needed restrictions. Lets look at some examples and possible solutions:

Example - departure from KSQL to KLVK:

"Cleared into the Class Bravo. Turn on course after departure. Maintain at/below 1500. Expect higher in 10 min."

This gets the departure pointed at LVK right away and keeps it at the floor of the Class B in the area of SQL, designed to separate traffic from the SFO 28L/R stream. Raise the aircraft to the Class B floors as it progresses and/or when clear of busy streams issue "resume any appropriate VFR altitudes".

Example - arrival from KHAF area to KHWD:

"Cleared to enter the Class Bravo. Cross SFO midfield at or above 3500, descend and maintain 1500 over the bay. Enter left base for runway 28L."

This clearance will place the aircraft clear of SFO arrivals and departures (TWR should be given an advisory for possible missed approach conflicts) and then uses the OAK Class C floor as a basis of separation from OAK arrivals.

VFR flight following

VFR aircraft may request radar service, called "flight following". Flight following is extending to VFR aircraft, the "safety alerts" that are always provided to IFR aircraft. Safety alerts are of two types - terrain/obstruction warnings (aircraft below MVA) and traffic advisories. Flight Following need only be granted when you workload permits. Flight Following does not eliminate a VFR pilots requirement to "see and avoid".

Phraseology

Here is a sample of a Flight Following request being handled:

N104TP: "Norcal Approach, 4TP 3 miles east ECA. Looking for flight following."

OAK_APP: "N104TP, Squawk 4241 and ident."

...

OAK_APP: "N104TP, radar contact over ECA vor."

Radar Service is now in effect.

...

OAK_APP: "N104TP, Traffic 12 o'clock, 4 miles, eastbound at 5000, an ATR-72."

N104TP: "Traffic in sight."

...

OAK_APP: "N104TP, Radar service terminated. Squawk VFR. Frequency change approved. For further advisories, contact OAK_CTR on 132.20."

Traffic advisories

Traffic information will include the following:

(a) Azimuth from the aircraft in terms of the 12 hour clock, or

(b) When rapidly maneuvering civil test or military aircraft prevent accurate issuance of traffic as in (a) above, specify the direction from an aircraft's position in terms of the eight cardinal compass points (N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW). This method shall be terminated at the pilot's request.

(c) Distance from the aircraft in nautical miles;

(d) Direction in which the target is proceeding;

(e) altitude if known (altitude should be known from mode C readout on VATSIM, unless pilot is squawking standby);

(f) Type of aircraft (if the flight plan data has been sent by the pilot).

EXAMPLE:

"Traffic 10 o'clock, 3 miles, west-bound climbing through 4500, a Dash-8."

Traffic advisories should generally not be issued to aircraft until the range is 12 to 10 miles as pilots seeing multiplayer aircraft beyond these ranges is generally not possible.

Note that these calls are advisories. They should not be accompanied by vectors unless a conflict is imminent (a traffic alert). Also, the instruction "maintain visual separation" should only be issued to IFR aircraft, which allows an aircraft to deviate from his cleared route as needed. VFR aircraft should always be maintaining visual separation.

Operations at Uncontrolled Fields

Introduction

This tutorial will explain how to handle operations to and from uncontrolled fields. But first we need to define which fields are uncontrolled. There are two kinds of uncontrolled field:

• Fields that do not have a control tower. These are shown under the airports and charts link as airports within Class E and Class G.

• Fields that have a control tower, but no ZOA controller is currently providing tower services. These are airports listed within Class B, C, and D airspace, when a controller is not logged in as TWR at the field.

When possible, APP or CTR should provide TWR services at all airports within Class B and C surface areas within their sector, when they are not manned by a TWR controller. In addition, APP or CTR may optionally provide TWR services at the other Class D airports in the sector.

An important concept to keep in mind is that the service must be uniform. Either an airport is to be handled as controlled, or uncontrolled, but you must avoid mixing the two. When controlled, all aircraft operating at the airport on the ground and in the pattern should be on your ATC frequency. When uncontrolled, all aircraft should be using the unicom frequency so they can send and receive advisories to each other.

When an aircraft calls you as an approach controller, determine whether you are going to provide TWR services. If you will not, advise all VFR aircraft that will operate at that field that the tower is closed, and to make advisory announcements on unicom. If you will provide TWR services, attempt to raise all aircraft operating at the field, to inform them that you are providing TWR services.

IFR operations have additional procedures...

IFR Departures

Aircraft are permitted to call ATC from uncontrolled fields to obtain IFR departure clearances. This departure clearance process is the same as for a controlled airport. The difference comes after the clearance readback. Do not issue taxi or takeoff clearances, as the airport is, after all, uncontrolled. The aircraft is given an "IFR release", either immediately, or when traffic permits.

Departure Instructions

Do not assign the runway - the pilot should do that. It may be helpful to provide him with the current winds, if reported.

You will not be able to give the pilot vectors to his first fix until he climbs above the MVA. So the pilot will have to decide how he will initally depart and navigate to the first fix, or at least how to safely climb to an altitude from where you can vector him.

Here are the choices:

1. Fly a published departure procedure on a chart (a SID);
2. Fly an obstacle departure procedure, as published in the "Takeoff Minumums" for that airport (if available);
3. If you are SURE that terrain or obstacles will not be a factor, fly runway heading until reaching the MVA;
4. If weather permits, AND the pilot requests it, instruct the pilot climb VFR to a specified altitude (i.e. the MVA) from which point you can provide vectors to the first fix. You must also advise that "IFR clearance is valid after reaching (altitude)."

Example:

N104TP: "Norcal Departure, King Air 104TP, on the ground at Reno Stead, looking for IFR clearance to Modesto."

SJC_APP: "King Air 104TP cleared to Modesto Airport via the published obstacle departure procedure, direct FMG, direct SWR, direct LIN, direct MOD, c/m 15000. Departure with me, Sqwk 5541."

N104TP: "Cleared to Modesto as filed. c/m 15000. Departure with you Sqwk 5541."

SJC_APP: "King Air 4TP, readback correct. Reno altimeter 29.92. Winds 120 at 5. Released for departure, report airborne this frequency, frequency change approved."

During periods of busy traffic, you can control the time when an IFR departure takes off with one of three methods: "clearance void times", "release holds", and "release times".

Hold for Release

Use a "hold for release" when you want to insure the aircraft will not depart until you release them. The aircraft will wait until you issue a specific release. Give the pilot a time within which he can expect the release.

N104TP: "Cleared to KMOD via runway heading, radar vectors SNS, then as filed. c/m 15000. Dep. freq. 120.10. Sqwk 5541."

SJC_APP: "104TP, readback correct. WVI alt 29.92. Winds 120 at 5. Hold for Release. Expect departure within 5 minutes".

(5min later...)

SJC_APP: "104TP, Switch to advisory frequency approved. Released for IFR departure".

Release Times

Another way to accomplish this is using a specific release time.

N104TP: "Cleared to KMOD via runway heading, radar vectors SNS, then as filed. c/m 15000. Dep. freq. 120.10. Sqwk 5541."

SJC_APP: "104TP, readback correct. WVI alt 29.92. Winds 120 at 5. Make advisories on unicom. Time now 1300Z. Released for departure at 1305Z".

Clearance Void Times

Use a clearance-void time to set a limit on how long the pilot can take to get airborne.

N104TP: "Cleared to KMOD via runway heading, radar vectors SNS, then as filed. c/m 15000. Dep. freq. 120.10. Sqwk 5541."

SJC_APP: "104TP, readback correct. WVI alt 29.92. Winds 120 at 5. Switch to advisory frequency approved. Time now 1300Z. Clearance void if not off by 1310Z."

IFR Approaches

The key concept to understand when handling an approach to an uncontrolled field is that the you want to transfer the aircraft to unicom, about the same time you would transfer control to TWR if the airport was controlled. Unicom is being used as a tool for pilots to coordinate separation in the traffic pattern of the uncontrolled field.

Thus, once your traffic is established on the final approach course, terminate radar service, and transfer the aircraft to unicom. Instruct the pilot to return to your frequency if he should have to execute a missed approach. Issue any traffic advisories for known aircraft in the area.

OAK_APP: "N104TP, Traffic advisory, a beech king air just departed Watsonville turn right crosswind, climbing thru 3500..."

OAK_APP: "N104TP, Radar service terminated. Switch to advisory frequency. Report missed approach on this frequency."